In the Shadow of the Crescent
At the end of March an important gathering of 15 delegations from all the major religions in the Middle East, including Catholics, took place at Al-Azhar University in Cairo to discuss the "relationship between religion and fundamental human rights and everyone's obligations." In the aftermath of the global riots over the publication of cartoons depicting Mohammad in Denmark, followers of different religious traditions have found some new common ground in their desire for governments to protect religious symbols and property from aggression. The meeting went much further, however, with delegates producing a nine-point declaration of unified support for:
- total faith in human life as a "gift from God"
- all initiatives by individuals or groups in favor of life based on dignity and ethical profit
- the right to peace and peace of mind in life
- everyone's right to be protected and educated in his rights and duties
- governments to promote a culture based on faith and moderation
- the right to religious freedom
- the United Nations to protect and defend the rights of ethnic and religious minorities
- the right of people to resist military and ideological occupation
- the United Nations to approve a declaration in support of peoples' right to religious freedom and a ban on all acts of aggression and violence against places of worship, churches, monasteries and on religious symbols.
The declaration is one positive development in the midst of renewed inter-religious fighting around the world, but it remains to be seen if the good will of these 15 delegations can spread to their co-religionists.
Central to the nine points of the declaration is the right to religious freedom. Lacking this, the United Nations would have no religious places or symbols to support or protect against rioting mobs or governments themselves.
While the international community has paid lip service to religious freedom at least since the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights (article 18) was written, the reality on the ground demonstrates a different understanding, particularly in confessional countries.
The recent trial of the Afghan convert to Christianity, Abdul Rahman, shocked many outside Afghanistan by bringing the apostasy laws of that country out into the open.
After the bloody struggle to topple the Taliban and the Afghanis' jubilation at their fall, it seemed Afghanistan had entered a new chapter in its history, shedding the strict Shari'a law that harshly punished anyone straying from Taliban-approved practices and certainly from Taliban-interpreted Islam. All other religions were banned from the country and even other Muslims had to conform to Taliban teaching or suffer the consequences. Nearly five years after the demise of Taliban rule, the world learned that some of their legacy still remains.
Abdul Rahman converted to Christianity 16 years ago while working for a humanitarian organization. He was able to escape persecution under the Taliban's rule for all those years only to be "outed" by his own family in the midst of a custody dispute. Ironically, Afghanistan's newfound freedom did little to change the fate of Rahman, who was taken to prison on account of his faith and faced almost certain execution in keeping with the Afghan constitution. After several governments and organizations, including Muslim ones outside Afghanistan, stepped forward to file complaints on his behalf, the judge claimed Rahman to be mentally disturbed and permitted his release. Given angry anti-Christian sentiment demonstrated in rallies on the street, however, Rahman was safer in prison. The Italian government granted Rahman religious asylum, their Italian foreign minister being one of the first to speak on his behalf to President Hamid Karzai, and Rahman was whisked away the same day of his release.
What is perhaps most surprising about this story is the failure of the Afghan constitution to grant religious freedom, in light of what Afghans experienced under the Taliban. On the one hand the constitution actually states that "followers of other religions are free to exercise their faith and perform their religious rites within the limits of the provisions of law" and declares support for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (which states that individuals are free to convert to another religion). Yet on the other hand the constitution states that the "religion of the state is the sacred religion of Islam." The president and vice-president of the country are required by law to be Muslim and other government officials are required to take an oath to "support justice and righteousness in accord with the provisions of the sacred religion of Islam." Apostasy and blasphemy laws not only exist in the legal books but also in practice.
The essential question is: Should states (in this instance Islamic states) consider their confessionalism the "established church" kind or merely an official recognition of their tradition, history, and demographics? If it is the former, it is difficult to allow freedom for any religion besides that embraced by the state. If it is the latter, the existence of religious minorities and the freedom of conversion pose no threat or problem to the particular religious identity of the country.
States that describe themselves as "Islamic" have experimented with varying answers to the question. Here is a brief overview of the extent of religious freedom in some of the major Muslim countries today. Facts and figures were taken from Freedom House (a think tank in Washington, D.C.), Aid to the Church in Need (a Catholic charity under the authority of the Holy See), and the U.S. State Department's International Religious Freedom Report.
Saudi Arabia — The kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the most extreme example of lack of religious freedom in Islamic countries; other religions are not officially recognized and the legal system is based on Shari'a. Government "religious police" (also known as the Committee to Promote Virtue and Prevent Vice) keep watch over offenses against Islam and punishments include imprisonment and whipping. Conversion to another religion is considered apostasy and punishable by death. The death penalty has also been applied to crimes described as heresy and blasphemy against Islam.
Non-Muslims are allowed to visit and do business in the country but must wear hijab, or strict Muslim attire, and are not free to practice their faith in public. Private worship is allowed in theory but not always in practice and the law of protection is not defined.
Official statistics of non-Muslims within the country are not available but there are reportedly between 500,000 and 1 million Catholics in the kingdom. There are 50 government funded "conversion centers" in the country whose purpose is to convert foreigners to Islam. While the government has campaigned for increased religious toleration in the past few years, there have been instances of prayers for the deaths of Jews and Christians from the two major mosques in Mecca and Medina, among others.
Iran — As a Shiite Muslim nation, Iran may follow a different theological tradition than Saudi Arabia, but its interpretation of tolerance for other faiths outside its own particular tradition of Islam is equally harsh.
Following the Islamic Revolution of 1979, non-Muslims emigrated in large numbers and now account for less than 1 percent of the Iranian population. Christians are estimated by the United Nations to number around 300,000.
Iran follows Shari'a law but its constitution recognizes the right of particular existing groups to practice their religion: Zoroastrians (the pre-Islamic faith of Persia), Jews, and Christians.
In practice, non-Muslims have reported harassment, imprisonment, and abuse because of their faith. Government agents have reportedly targeted converts to either force them to re-convert or be killed.
Sudan — The decades-long civil war pitted the Muslim north against the Christian and animist south but was not motivated solely by religion. Now that there are power-sharing protocols in place, Sudan is hopefully moving toward more peaceful co-existence, though shocking crimes against Christian villages and refugees by government-sponsored raiding parties continue today. Sudan also has Shari'a law and mandates the death penalty for apostasy.
Syria — Syria is ruled by the secular Ba'ath party, the same party of Saddam Hussein. The government has a bloody legacy of cracking down on politically inspired Islamic groups that threaten its power but allowing all religious traditions to practice their rites (though activities are monitored by government agents) and discouraging proselytizing. Oddly, the government has labeled the Jehovah's Witnesses a "politically motivated Zionist organization."
Iraq — As with Afghanistan, the new Iraqi constitution recognizes the right to religious freedom but declares Islam to be the official state religion. The government has promised to place guards at all places of worship and has given reconstruction funds to mosques and churches damaged in attacks.
At the government level, several initiatives have been taken to foster peaceful co-existence among religions, but at the social level the increasingly sectarian strife is well known and documented. The fighting is largely between Sunnis and Shiites, but as a minority Christians have been inordinately affected by the violence and have emigrated in large numbers.
Pakistan — Islam is the state religion in Pakistan and laws must be consistent with Islam, though the constitution states that "subject to law, public order and morality, every citizen shall have the right to profess, practice and propagate his religion." In practice, however, Pakistani government agents and segments of the populace discriminate and harass religious minorities.
Blasphemy against Islam is punishable by death and the law is often used as an excuse to settle personal scores.
While societal tensions between religions remains high, the government has recently taken some steps to curb religious violence and encourage religious tolerance.
Egypt — The Egyptian constitution protects the freedom and practice of religion but chooses which religions it will officially recognize. Islam is the official state religion and the legal system is based on Shari'a law. Christians have experienced discrimination in obtaining permits to build churches, despite presidential decrees supporting the renovation and erection of churches in Egypt. Converts from Christianity to Islam were allowed to change their civil records in accordance with their new identity, but converts from Islam to Christianity were not allowed to do likewise. Though in direct opposition to law, police have detained, imprisoned, and tortured converts to Christianity.
At the social level, bloody confrontations between Muslims and Christians occurs sporadically. On April 14, a Muslim man the police called mentally disturbed attacked worshippers at three Coptic churches with knives, killing one person and injuring 12.
Turkey — The constitution of modern Turkey is strictly secular and allows freedom of religion. The government continually strives to rid the public square of political Islam — even to the point of banning Muslim women from wearing headscarves in government buildings — which had led on occasion to a Muslim backlash. At the government level, a campaign against missionaries and proselytizing was launched, and religious minorities are essentially banned from taking public office. At the social level, converts to Christianity have been threatened and brutally attacked.
Palestine — The Palestinian Authority was founded as a secular entity but the recent electoral gains of Hamas have sparked debate over the Islamic nature of the Palestinian government. While Christian and Muslim Palestinians have found solidarity in their cause and inter-religious strife is rare, the Islamization of the intifada has led to increased alienation of the ever-dwindling Christian community.
Indonesia — Indonesia is 88% Muslim, and the constitution states that the country is founded upon "belief in one Supreme God" but does not consider itself an Islamic state. Freedom of religion is secured in the constitution, and generally in practice, though proselytizing is banned. Only five major religions are recognized, including Christianity. The war-torn Aceh province uses Shari'a law and there is some pressure on the government to adopt it at the national level, but most Muslim groups oppose this idea. Laws punishing crimes against Islam exist but are only enforced under social pressure.
Some sections of the country experience continual inter-religious fighting, and the government claims to be working to resolve this conflict.
Indonesia is considered the most moderate of Muslim countries but Christians there have reported discrimination and harassment by government officials on account of their faith and at the social level have had their property destroyed by Muslim attackers.
In areas where Muslims are the minority, it is Muslims who have reported discrimination from officials. In an effort to decrease religious radicalism and retaliation in the country, police have made improvements in guarding religious properties and investigating religiously-motivated crimes.
Jordan — The Hashemite kingdom of Jordan allows freedom of religion while considering Islam to be the official state religion. Converts from Islam face apostasy laws in Shari'a courts (only for Muslims), legal discrimination, and the loss of civil rights. Proselytizing is not expressly forbidden though Shari'a courts may prosecute proselytizers. Nearly the entire population of Jordan is Sunni Muslim, with 4% counted as Christian. Nine parliamentary seats out of 110 are held for Christian representatives. Christian-Muslims relations are generally peaceful but conversion is taboo.
The government claims not to take a position on apostasy, leaving the matter to Shari'a courts, though blasphemy laws (called "harming the dignity of Muslims") exist in government courts and are applied.
In a 2004 case not unlike Abdul Rahman's, a male Christian convert was arrested by a Shari'a court, found guilty of apostasy, stripped of civil rights and right to inheritance, his marriage was annulled, and he was declared to be without any religious identity. Facing forced separation from his wife and possible loss of custody of his child, the man reportedly escaped the country with his family.
Andrea Kirk Assaf is based in Rome, and currently writing from Lebanon.
© Urbi et Orbi Communications
This item 7118 digitally provided courtesy of CatholicCulture.org
