Differences of Temperament (Part 1 of 3)

by Charles Bruehl, D.D.

If the fundamental likeness of men is striking, their relative differences are not less impressive. Anyone who has to deal much with men will readily observe how differently they react under the same circumstances. He will also notice that these peculiar reactions to given situations in the same men are relatively permanent and uniform; in fact, they may be said to be typical. Accordingly, these typical reactions may form a basis for classification. From early times attempts at classification along these lines have been made, and they have persisted to our own days. The reason for these efforts is obvious, for, if we succeed in classifying men in this manner, we thereby acquire valuable knowledge that will open up practical avenues of approach. The educator, as well as the leader of men, is interested in this study. Nor is it without importance in religion, as Dr. J. L. McIntyre remarks: "In religious psychology also the temperaments are of considerable importance, owing to the great suggestibility of some (the sanguine and melancholic) as compared with others, the greater excitability of the sanguine and choleric, the brooding tendency of the melancholic or nervous, the insusceptibility of the phlegmatic, and the excessive self-centering of the sanguine and choleric." ¹

What Is Temperament?

Roughly, temperament may be described as a fixed disposition towards a specific type of emotional reaction. Temperamental dispositions, though not altogether unchangeable, nevertheless possess no slight degree of stability. Quite often in adults advanced in years, the same temperamental characteristics may be discovered that marked their early days. Few, as a matter of fact, entirely outgrow their native disposition. Heroic effort, as in the case of the Saints, may modify the original temperament, but traces of it will always remain. Dr. McIntyre gives expression to a well-known truth when he says: "The relative permanence of the temperament in the individual is not inconsistent with some gradual change over long periods of time, although there is no doubt that the temperament is that part of our endowment which requires greatest effort or most violent and prolonged change of circumstances to modify." ²

In order to convey a clear idea of the meaning of temperament, we will quote what some of our notable psychologists have to say on the subject Professor Edward Bradford Titchener gives this definition: "Temperament, so far as it can be employed in a strictly psychological sense, is thus a very general term for affective constitution, for the congenital susceptibility of the individual to emotive stimuli, and for the typical character of his emotive response."³ Hermann Lotze writes as follows: "We ascribe considerable influence over the course of all the spiritual states to the temperaments: by these we understand nothing more than the differences, in kind and degree, of excitability for external impressions; the greater or less extent to which the ideas excited reproduce others; the rapidity with which the ideas vary; the strength with which feelings of pleasure and pain are associated with them; finally, the ease with which external actions associate with these inner states themselves."⁴ Professor Oswald Kulpe says: "The existence of special individual dispositions towards the origination and direction of feeling has long been recognized. They find expression in such words as temperament, or in the phrases emotionally minded, rationally minded, capricious, reliable. Not all of these terms, it is true, have exclusive reference to the development or state of feeling in an individual; but, whatever else they may mean, all alike tend in this direction." ⁵ We can gather from this that temperament has to do with affective responses. It belongs to the realm of emotions and feelings. It designates greater or less emotional excitability in the individual. Temperament, therefore, touches on the bodily side of our nature, and has only an indirect influence on the higher spiritual faculties.⁶

The Four Basic Temperaments

There appear to be four basic ways in which men may react to external stimuli. The reaction may be slow or quick, strong or weak. These modalities of reaction and their combination gives us the traditional four temperaments, which even at this advanced stage of experimental research find much favor with psychologists.⁷ The well-known four temperaments are the sanguine, the choleric, the phlegmatic and the melancholic. The sanguine temperament is warm, impulsive, impressionable, changeable; the choleric is energetic, vigorous, readily aroused and tenacious of purpose; the phlegmatic is sluggish, cold, not easily excitable but very persistent; the melancholic luxuriates in sentiment, is given to subjective brooding, and is very receptive but inactive. The melancholic temperament frequently exhibits a morbid strain. Rarely is any one of these temperaments found in a pure form without some blending with the other ones. This is fortunate, for an individual possessing any one of these temperaments in its unadulterated form would be sadly afflicted and heading either for the sanitarium or the penitentiary. What is found in real life is a predominance of one over the others. Each temperament has certain excellent and desirable features, but at the same time exhibits fatal defects. Proper education of the temperament consists in bringing out the good traits and neutralizing the inherent shortcomings. Happily this can be done. If we discover in certain individuals great excellencies of character associated with glaring defects, this is due to the fact that, whereas the good qualities of their respective temperaments have been assiduously cultivated, the evil tendencies have not been sufficiently counteracted. But temperament is good. Without it man will not achieve much in any line. The neutral type is not likely to rise to any high degree of perfection and proficiency. Of course, an individual of this type will hardly do much harm, but neither will he do much good. He will fit well enough into positions where neither initiative nor great expenditure of energy are required. But for accomplishments of great pith and moment the man of temperament is needed. Both saints and heroes are of the highly temperamental kind. The artist is notoriously temperamental. Temperament rightly used can be made a powerful instrument for good. If not rightly used, on the other hand, it will spell disaster and bring ruin. Many have found their inherited temperament a terrible curse.

Description Of The Various Temperaments

Usually the choleric temperament is accorded the first place. It is considered the ideal temperament. It certainly is the temperament of the man of action, the great executive, the statesman, the leader of men, the successful politician, the explorer, and the discoverer. It is also that of the general, the military conqueror, the demagogue, the industrial magnate, the revolutionary hero, the orator/the champion of human rights, and the implacable foe of injustice. It is an essential ingredient in the mental make-up of those who rise to eminence in Church and State. It is of this stuff that those are made who inaugurate great movements of reform, who advance the cause of civilization, and who in a large way promote human welfare and liberty. As typical examples of the choleric temperament we may mention Cain, Esau, Moses, John the Baptist, Paul, Themistocles, Alexander the Great, Caesar, Brutus, Napoleon, O'Connell, Kosciusko, Washington, Lincoln, Gregory VII, Daniel Webster, Lovejoy, Savanarola, St. Ignatius. History will supply many more instances.

Dr. James H. Snowden draws this picture of the choleric individual: "The choleric temperament is impulsive and rash, hot and violent, progressive and pushing, decisive and domineering. It will brook no interference with its desires and plans, but breaks through all opposition. It is the progressive spring in human character, impatient of tradition and conservatism, and driving forward, it may be, recklessly and blindly. People of this disposition are leaders and pioneers in the world, working under high pressure and sweeping all obstacles and opposition out of their path." ⁸ This portrait, however, is rather incomplete. We have to add some very important touches. The perceptive faculties of the choleric individual are very keen. He quickly grasps the salient features of the problem, and in one glance takes in a situation. His judgments are true, though possibly one-sided. His memory is reliable and serves him well. He has a high regard for principles and applies them with unbending rigidity. He has little use for sentiment, and, therefore, may seem unnecessarily ruthless and harsh in his dealings with men. His speech is incisive, and carries with it a note of imperiousness. The sterner passions are strong in him, whilst the gentler sentiments, such as sympathy, are almost absent. He is inclined to look upon his fellowmen as mere tools for his ends, which he pursues with ardor and perserverance. His hatred can become a consuming fire. He is vindictive and wreaks vengeance on those that oppose him, but will not stoop to petty annoyances. His mind turns to big schemes, and his imagination is kindled by anything that will bring public applause. He loves power and delights in using it. Emergencies he meets with confidence and self-assurance. He possesses mental poise and cannot easily be embarrassed. There are, however, also very dark shadows in this picture. If the choleric individual hitches his wagon to the right star, his career will be beneficent; if he hitches it to a meteor, wreckage and ruin will mark its course. It all depends upon whether this tremendous energy will be directed into the right channels. For with the choleric temperament are associated powerful passions, unbridled ambition, arrogance, pride, lack of sympathy for others, rashness, egotism, devastating anger, obstinacy, self-sufficiency and unscrupulosity. Men of the choleric type have undoubtedly done much for the world, but, on the other hand, they have also brought untold woe to humanity. Whether they become a blessing or a curse to their fellowmen will be determined by the fundamental inspiration of their character, the motives that prompt their activity and the education, which they have received. It is evident, then, that educators have before them a very delicate and important task when they are confronted by the choleric temperament. It is impossible to suppress the energy that accompanies this temperament; the only solution is to give it high aims and to set before it noble tasks. ⁹

The choleric temperament is a serious problem for the educator who usually blunders in dealing with it. Since its manifestations are unattractive and vexatious, it naturally arouses antagonism in the educator, who thus is led to adopt in its regard a vigorous policy of repression. That, however, is a fatal mistake, for he will rarely succeed in quenching the spark, which will continue to smolder under the ashes only to break into flame in some unexpected and disastrous way. What is needed is wise guidance and proper utilization of the energies that are latent in this temperament. A child of this type must be given tasks that will absorb his desire for activity. It is well to entrust him with some responsibility, which will satisfy his ambition and arouse his sense of duty; otherwise, he will consume himself in discontent. The choleric child ought to have an educator who is capable of arousing admiration and respect. He must feel that he is in presence of a really superior personality, which is worthy of imitation. His own strong will must be met by a still stronger will. Commands must be sparingly given, but, when given, must be irrevocable and enforced with determination. Opportunities that will allow the child to distinguish himself should be occasionally furnished. Praise at the right time will have an excellent effect. Yes, the choleric temperament will give much trouble, but, if rightly handled, it will amply repay the pains taken in its behalf. ¹⁰ In this connection the suggestions made by Dr. John MacCunn are deserving of our attention. "Pronounced instincts," he writes, "are the opportunity of the educator; they come halfway to meet him. If only they were always as reasonable, as congruent with circumstances, as good, as they are pronounced. For of all types this is the most refractory. When the parent proposes, it disposes. And, where affectionate foresight has been at endless pains to clear the path for some ambitious or respectable career, this choleric object of anxiety will not walk in it, but goes his own way. Small wonder if many a parent has asked, and failed to answer the question: How is it to be dealt with? Not, one might suggest, by the strong and risky policy of withstanding it to the face. When proclivity is pronounced, it may still be modifiable; it may even, if some counter instinct be available, be subjugated. But it is precisely the difficulty that in the choleric type these counter-proclivities are not always to be found. And, when this is so, the more hopeful policy would seem to be that of frankly accepting the proclivity, and of going to meet it. After all it is a sign of strong life. When nature speaks clearly, we must listen. And a ruling instinct has a way, under flat contradiction, of becoming a ruling passion. Therefore, it is so often the wiser plan, when instincts are thus pronounced, to cast about for the means of finding for them the healthiest and highest development of which they seem capable: for the lad of roving and adventurous spirit, some manly and honorable service: for the boy who must needs drive a bargain, a stool in the best firm, or apprenticeship with the best tradesman available: for the confirmed meddler with the household clocks, barometers and water-taps, the workshop bench, and so forth. This may be difficult. It may be out of keeping with family traditions, circumstances, influence, projects. Yet this temperament is worth humoring. For it is perhaps by these choleric types, with their masterful proclivities, that the hardest work of the world is done." ¹¹ This is excellent advice, and, if heeded and prudently acted upon, will prevent many family tragedies and spare parents and educators many fruitless regrets.

Notes

1 "Temperament" in "Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics" (New York City).

2 Loc. cit. This is not in the least contradicted by what Father John X. Pyne, S.J., says: "These so-called native tendencies are very amenable to discipline, if the individual is subjected to it. Habit, more than inherited temperament, determines characters. St. Ignatius of Loyola was naturally of a choleric temperament and in his early years was accustomed to yield to his natural inclination. After his conversion he acquired so complete a mastery over his inherited temperament, and so complete a victory over his former habits, that he was no longer in danger of yielding to anger. By the exercise of will, he had transformed his character" ("The Mind," New York City). As we shall see later, Father Pyne takes too narrow a view of the choleric temperament when he simply identifies it with a proneness to anger. It implies much more. It stands for general energetic emotional reaction. In that sense, St. Ignatius, according to our view, remained choleric to his very last days. His great enterprises, his indomitable courage, his soaring ambition, his very mortifications and his heroic self-denial bear the unmistakable earmarks of the choleric temperament. He did not get rid of his Choleric temperament, but he transfigured and sublimated it.

3 "A Textbook of Psychology" (New York City).

4 "Outlines of Psychology." Translated by George T. Ladd (Boston).

5 "Outlines of Psychology." Translated by E. B. Titchener (New York City).

6 "Le temperament peut etre defini: la caracteristique physiologique de l'individu, et son importance n'a pas besoin d'etre demontree. C'est le pivot de notre activite, la source de nos forces, la base indispensable de nos facultes les plus hautes ... Le temperament est la base du caractere, mais ne saurait etre confondu avec lui. Le premier est, pour ainsi dire, la note physiologique de l'individu, l'autre est sa note morale. Le temperament qui traduit les modalites sensible et affective de notre etre est assujeti a l'ame et domine par la volonte. Le caractere s'implante sur le temperament et constitue notre modalite sensible et morale. Il tient a la fois au corps et a l'ame, en un mot au compose humain. Tout en repondant aux dispositions organiques, nos inclinations, nos sentiments, nos passions subissent dans une certaine mesure le joug de la volonte, puissament aidee par l'habitude. C'est a dire que le caractere peut etre modifie par l'education, tandis que le temperament, pris en lui-meme, obeit fatalement aux lois de la nature" (Dr. Surbled, "Le Temperament," Paris). We add some other definitions of temperament. "Temperament ist die verschiedene Art der Erregbarkeit des Gemutes oder die Weise, wie die Seele zum Fuhlen und Streben gestimmt ist" (G. Hagemann, "Psychologie," Freiburg). "Temperament ist die Art und Weise, wie ein Mensch den Eindrucken der Aussenwelt gegenuber sich verhalt, und wie er unter der Gewalt dieser Eindrucke leidet bzw. handelt. Das Temperament aussert sich somit vorzugsweise im Gemutsleben und befindet sich in dem besonderen Mischungsverhaltnisse von Erregbarkeit und Ruckwirkungsfahigkeit der Seele" (B, Hellwig, "Die vier Temperamente bei Kindern," Paderborn).. "Die Temperamente unterscheiden sich wesentlich nach zwei Gesichtspunkten, namlich nach der Empfanglichkeit fur aussere Einwirkungen und nach der Art der Gegenwirkungen gegen die empfangenen Eindrucke, oder kurz nach der Erregbarkeit und nach der Gegenwirkung (nach der Rezeptivitat und nach der Spontaneitat). Diese Reizbarkeit und die Gegenwirkung gegen die aufgenommenen Reize beziehen sich zunachst auf das Gemut; aber im Zusammenhange damit stehen auch die Erkenntnis- und die Willenstatigkeiten" (Leonhard Habrich, "Padagogische Psychologie," Munich).

7 "The number of temperaments has been variously given as two, three, four, six, eight and even more, but on the whole the classic four has held the field down to our own day, as if it corresponded in some mysterious way to some ultimate differences in mind or body, or both" (J. L. McIntyre, loc. cit.). Similarly Dr. Titchener; "The doctrine of temperaments was first systematized by the Greek physician, Galen, though the germs of the popular fourfold classification go back much farther in the history of thought. This classification takes account of two moments: the strength and the duration of emotive response. We thus get the following table:

The choleric temperament is impulsive, easily roused to strong emotion, but as easily diverted from the emotive situation; and so on. Literature furnishes us with typical instances. Thus, Hamlet and Laertes are respectively melancholic and choleric; Falstaff and the younger Percy, in the first part of King Henry IV, are respectively sanguine and choleric; while the scenes between Touchstone and Audrey in As You Like It bring the sanguine and phlegmatic temperaments into sharp contrast" (op. cit.).

8 "The Psychology of Religion" (New York City). Strange to say, Johannes Muller regards the phlegmatic as the highest type. He thinks that in such a man, with a well-developed intelligence, his phlegm enables him to accomplish results impossible to others, even with their livelier feelings and desires; easily retaining control of himself, he cannot be induced to acts of which he would repent on the morrow; in danger, at the decisive moment, he is master of himself, wherever it is not a question of sudden decision and energy; speed or quickness of choice often give others an advantage over him, but when he has time before him, he arrives quietly at the goal, while others, heaping mistakes upon mistakes, are lost in endless side issues. However, Dr. Muller does not take into account the natural shortcomings of this temperament. He forgets that indolence, apathy, insensibility, irresolution, ennui, slowness of intellect, conservatism, love of the grosser sense gratifications, and a number of minor defects are invariably connected with this temperament. The phlegmatic individual rarely descends to abysmal depths of iniquity, but he also rarely rises to high levels of achievement.

9 We will better understand this temperament if we try to find out how others see it. Out of the descriptions given by many will emerge a composite portrait that may be taken as a faithful likeness. Dr. Mclntyre draws this rapid and bold sketch: "The choleric has a remarkable power of action, both in energy and persistence, under the influence of passion; his passions inflame at the least obstacle; his pride, his jealousy, his desire of vengeance, his thirst for domination know no bounds, as long as his passions move him. He reflects little, acts without hesitation, on the spur of the moment, because he is convinced that he is right, and above all because such is his will. He spurns counsel and rarely turns aside from error, but follows the course of his passion to his own ruin and that of others" (loc. cit.). This is the choleric temperament in the raw, uninfluenced by moral considerations and unfashioned by education. In this state it is a real menace and a thing of evil. Dr. Habrich gives us a more balanced picture and distributes the lights and shadows more carefully: "Der Choleriker ist weniger vielseitig, aber immerhin noch schnell und um so heftiger, tiefer, nachhaltiger erregbar; er reagiert mit grosser Energie; er eilt nicht zu neuen Vorstellungen mit einer Fluchtigkeit, welche die alten nicht verarbeitet; er zeigt fur die ihm zusagenden Gebiete Scharfsinn und Verstand, insbesondere aber vermoge der tiefen Eindrucke auf sein Gemut eine Entschiedenheit und Kraft der Entschlusse, welche fur die Ausfuhrung burgt; was sich ihm in den Weg stellt, hat seine Starke, seinen Affekt, seine Leidenschaft zu spuren. Wir haben in ihm das achtungswerte Bild von Offenheit, Aufopferung, Tatkraft, Ausdauer, Mut, Kuhnheit, aber auch Eigensinn, Stolz, Herrschsucht, Verwegenheit, Anmassung" (loc. cit.). In this picture we find the good and the evil mixed. It is patent that the choleric temperament contains splendid possibilities for good with equally great possibilities for evil.

10 "Der Wille des cholerischen Kindes ist stark und fest. Es verlangt nach Tatigkeit. Stets ist es auf der Suche nach neuen Planen, die es nicht erstrebt, sondern ersturmt. Hindernisse reizen eher zu neuen Anstrengungen und selbst zu Gewalttatigkeiten und Harten. Aber auch das Hohe wird beharrlich erstrebt. Der Choleriker will glanzen und herrschen. Das cholerische Kind sollte nur Erzieher haben, die durch die Hohe ihrer Geistesbildung Bewunderung abnotigen. Es muss die Uberzeugung haben, dass es nichts gibt, was sein Lehrer nicht besser weiss. Bescheidene und unbedeutende Personen versagen deshalb so oft in der Leitung cholerischer Kinder. Der Wille des Erziehers muss stark, seine Anordnungen wohluberlegt und unwiderruflich sein. Viel Worte und lange Ermahnungen sind unangebracht. Mit Gefalligskeitsbeweisen karge man. Lob und Gelegenheit zum Auszeichnen wirken anspornend. In der Familie lerne das cholerische Kind bitten und danken, wenn es einer nicht gewohnlichen Dienstleistung bedarf. Wo es befehlen kann, ist es leicht unmassig im Fordern und entwickelt sich rasch zum Tyrannen. Seine Anmassung, sein Eigensinn und Stolz mussen fruhzeitig gebrochen werden. Ist das erreicht, so wird das cholerische Kind ein Held der Tugend. Es ubt seine Pflichten aus hohen Motiven, lernt aus Uberzeugung der Notwendigkeit, halt sein gegebenes Wort treu, vertritt seine Ansicht mit Warme. So wachst es zum tuchtigen, fuhrenden Manne, zur tatkraftigen und mustergultigen Frau heran" (Dr. W. Bergmann, "Temperament in Lexikon der Padagogik," Freiburg). Much to the same effect is what Dr. Franz Muszynski says: "Sind dies einerseits grossartige Vorzuge, die den Choleriker auszeichnen, so verbergen sich in seiner Natur Gefahren, die ihm verhangnisvoll werden konnen ... Und hierin kommt es darauf an, welchem Glucksstern der Choleriker folgt, d. h. welche sittliche Basis er einhalt. Hohe und Abgrund liegen seiner Natur gleich nahe; im Saulus schlummert der Paulus, und umgekehrt. In dieser Hinsicht liegt der Vergleich mit der Lokomotive nahe. Der Choleriker kann viele nach sich bestimmen, wenn er die Bahn der Natur einhalt, aber auch eben so viele dem Verderben weihen, wenn er unter uberhitztem Kessel fahrt und auf ein falsches Geleise gerat. Hierin hangt alles von seiner Erziehung und Bildung ab, so wohl die weiteren Licht- und Schattenseiten seines Wesens, als auch die Vorzuge und Mangel seines Charakters. Die ersteren sind denn auch voll und ganz in Anschlag zu bringen, wenn man sich ein rechtes Bild von dem cholerischen Temperament machen will" ("Die Temperamente," Paderborn).

11 "The Making of Character" (New York City).

© Ignatius Press, 2515 McAllister Street, San Francisco, CA. 94118.

See also: Temperaments and Their Pedagogical Treatment

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