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Catholic World News News Feature

The Inner Workings of the Vatican April 15, 2003

Almost every Catholic knows a few basic facts about the Vatican: that it is the world's smallest nation; that it is located within the city of Rome; that the Pope lives there; that it is the center of governance for the Church. Beyond that, however, few people are acquainted with the functions of the Vatican and its offices--what they are and what they do.

The Vatican is still a sovereign nation, but until relatively recent times, it was the center of a much larger holding of lands controlled by the papacy. Until the mid-19th century, the popes ruled the famous Papal States, which included the city-state--or "commune"--of Rome; the Vatican was merely part of that city. That all changed with the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 during the pontificate of Blessed Pius IX. All of the papal land holdings outside Rome were annexed by the new national government, and that Rome itself was added to the possessions of the nascent monarchy in 1870. Thus ended over 1,000 years of the popes' tenure as heads of state. As protest against what he saw as unjust seizure of papal lands, Pope Pius IX declared himself to be a "prisoner of the Vatican," and his successors maintained the same approach, refusing to accept the legitimacy of the Italian government's claims to what had been papal territory.

This gave birth to the "Roman question." The popes were given a year financial stipend by the new national government, and granted possession not only of the Vatican, but of the Lateran and Castel Gandalfo. Pope Pius IX, however, still would have nothing to do with the usurpers, and forbade Catholics to participate in the affairs of the Italian state. It was only under St. Pius X that Catholics were even given leave by the Church to vote in Italian elections.

Then in 1927, Italy--now under the rule of Benito Mussolini--entered into a concordat with the Holy See known as the Lateran Treaty (after the palace where the treaty was negotiated and signed). In addition to creating the Vatican City-State, the accord gave the Holy See certain extra-territorial properties in Italy. These include the major basilicas, curial and diocesan offices, and the Castel Gandolfo, the site of the popes' summer residence. The Pope is the head of state for this new sovereign entity, although he governs through the Pontifical Commission for the State of Vatican City. A Governor manages the day-to-day affairs of the Vatican City-State.

THE POPE'S WORKING DAY

So what does the Pope do as head of the world's smallest country? Today, an average day for Pope John Paul II is less active than it once was. Gone are the 18-hour days. The Holy Father will turn 83 in May 2003, and his still agile mind is trapped inside an increasingly fragile body. While late-night visitors to St. Peters Square might still see the light burning in the papal apartments, there is often a mid-afternoon nap to offset the Pontiff's "late to bed, early to rise" habits.

Pope John Paul rises early so that he can pray before celebrating his 7 a.m. private Mass in the papal apartments, ordinarily attended by 10-20 invited guests. Then comes breakfast, often with a guest or two; this is typically a working session. The discussion might center on current international events, the details of his next trip, or a briefing on some important ecclesiastical issue.

Next he spends several hours at his desk going through press clippings and correspondence or doing his own writing. (Many of his speeches are written for him, but just as often the words come from his own pen.) And he gives quite a few speeches each week. On Wednesdays there is the general public audience. On Sundays there is the noontime Angelus address to the crowds down in St. Peter's Square. Then there is a steady flow of addresses to the pilgrims with whom he meets in private audiences, the prepared remarks to visiting bishops and dignitaries, and the messages he sends to various Church groups and other organizations that are holding meetings or observing milestones.

After attending to this written work, the Pope generally holds meetings. He schedules discussions with curial cardinals, with bishops on their ad limina visits, and with a wide variety of other influential individuals. Most of this activity is done before noon, and when the time comes for lunch, it too is often a working session--which can sometimes last for several hours.

The custom in Italy is to take reposa: a siesta lasting up to three hours in the early afternoon. Leading up to this time, the Pope will spend some time alone, getting in some spiritual reading before settling into a nap. Then from 4 to 7 p.m. he is back on the job. This is the time of day he usually sets aside to see a curial official, such as his Friday meetings with Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger or his Saturday meeting with Cardinal Giovanni Battista Re of the Congregation for Bishops to discuss episcopal appointments. Later he will sit for a light supper with members of the papal household such as Bishop James Harvey, an American, before going back to his desk for more writing. His aides try to get him into bed between 10-11 p.m., but they are often unsuccessful.

As one reporter put it, "That is a tiring and very demanding day, especially for someone who is 82 years old and who has various physical impediments. I get tired watching him, much less doing the things he does. I can't help but be struck by resolve and dynamism he still has."

OFFICE POLICIES

As for the rest of the Vatican, it is like every other government. It has numerous offices (or dicasteries), and each receives a heavy volume of correspondence. The Vatican policy demands that all correspondence must be answered--and not with form letters, but with a personalized responses. Therefore, the prefect of a major Congregation in practice reads far more mail than, say, the Secretary of a Cabinet agency in the US government system. The dicasteries produce mountains of correspondence, answering questions from bishops, resolving disputes, dealing with problems among religious communities, and handling requests for congresses, conferences, and the like. Naturally, whenever any document--even a personal letter--is issued from a discastery, it takes on some aura of authority. Thus the Vatican offices are kept busy reading not only the incoming mailing but also what is sent out--by their own and other offices.

To keep track of this tsunami of paper, every document that issues forth from the Vatican is given a protocol number. The desire to keep track of all correspondence is an argument against email communication, and sometimes even against the use of faxes. (Another reason for the use of old-fashioned paper correspondence is the need to preserve confidentiality in a large portion of the correspondence.)

In addition to the routine desk work of the dicasteries, there are bishops and priests from around the world visiting Rome, and wanting to take up some issues with one of the Vatican offices. A great deal of time and energy is inevitably devoted to the task of managing the flow of visitors, channeling them to meet with the proper officials.

The tone on interaction between all the offices of the Vatican is ordinarily congenial. But these offices are held by ordinary mortal men, and occasionally swords are crossed. For instance, when the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith under Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger issued Dominus Iesus, Cardinal Edward Cassidy took the rare step of criticizing that statement in public. Cardinal Ratzinger and Cardinal Walter Kasper, a fellow German who now heads the Pontifical Council for Christian Unity, have also sometimes been at odds. Nevertheless, despite the tensions that bubble below the surface, a sense of decorum typically reigns over the Vatican; disagreements and handled quietly.

[AUTHOR ID] Brian O'Neel is a free-lance writer based in California.

The Vatican Agencies

SECRETARIAT OF STATE

The Secretariat of State (SOS) is the prime office of the Holy See, and of all the dicasteries within the Vatican, it works most closely with the Pope. Indeed it is the "super dicastery" because while the Pope is the head of state, the Secretary of State is the prime minister.

The Secretariat has direct oversight and responsibility for many--but not all--of the other dicasteries at the Vatican. When the Congregation for Bishops puts together a list of candidates to fill open sees, in many cases the list will go through Secretariat for final approval. Virtually all documents that come out of the Vatican also have to go through SOS so it can recommend (and sometimes mandate) changes. If the document involves a doctrinal issue, then the last word is with the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. In that case, the Secretariat will still look at it, but it is very rare that SOS will push for any type of change. If it a speech by the Pope or a statement representing the position of the Holy See to be delivered at an international conference, however, the Secretariat is much more intimately involved.

The Secretary of State's office is, at least in theory, the place where the Vatican's work happens. Naturally, the degree of control actually exercised by the SOS depends heavily on the individual personalities involved. Vatican insiders have observed that when Cardinal Re was sostituto (second in command) at SOS, he was much more intimately aware of everything that was happening within the Holy See than the current sostituto, Archbishop Leonardo Sandri, tends not to become involved in the minutiae of work at other dicasteries.

The current Secretary of State is Cardinal Angelo Sodano, who is most frequently described as "pragmatic." He is infrequently seen in public, and when he is, tends to be very reserved. Members of the Vatican press corps are constantly trying to draw him into public statements, but like a seasoned Roman diplomat, he rarely says anything substantive.

This reserved nature can cause some problems when it flies in the face of the actions of other dicasteries. For instance, several years ago, on the eve of a visit to the Vatican by the Chinese premier, the Fides news agency issued a report detailing how the Beijing government has repressed the Catholic Church, jailing and torturing priests who are loyal to Rome. Since Fides is the press arm of the Congregation for Evangelization, Cardinal Sodano's office was hard pressed to explain to the Chinese delegation that Fides' report did not represent the official posture of the Holy See. Had it been left up to the cardinal, Fides would have never published that report. His view, it is generally understood, inclines toward the long-term strategic interests of the Church; he is not inclined to "make waves" about specific issues and individual cases.

Since the Secretariat has such an important place at the Holy See, it is no accident that many of Cardinal Sodano's former subordinates have moved up to positions in charge of their own dicasteries. Moreover, the cardinal has considerable influence over other Vatican offices because the prefect of a Congregation generally does not choose his secretary or undersecretary; they are chosen for him, and they are chosen by the Secretary of State. (The prefects--the heads of the most important offices--are chosen directly by the Pope). An exception would be Cardinal Ratzinger's choice of Archbishop Angelo Amato to replace Archbishop Tarcisio Bertone as secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.

Like other secretaries of state, Cardinal Sodano has been able to leave his mark on the Vatican: a mark that will be felt for generations to come. His importance can be measured by the fact that he is the only person outside of the papal household who can see the Pope at will, without an appointment.

SECTION FOR GENERAL AFFAIRS (THE FIRST SECTION)

The First Section of the SOS (also known as the Internal Section) is known as "the Pope's right hand" and is led by the sostituto (the Italian term literally means "substitute"). Archbishop Leonardo Sandri currently holds this position. This post is also a crucial one, and one that has produced Popes Pius XII and Paul VI. This office has responsibility for most of the day-to-day affairs of the Holy See, and serves the practical needs of the papacy. If the Pope needs a document prepared, this is the discastery that does the job. (As this article is written, the First Section is supervising the Latin translation of the Pope's forthcoming encyclical on the Eucharist into Latin). All important appointments pass through this office as well. The Vaticans representatives report to the sostituto, and his office attends to the concerns of all embassies accredited to the Holy See. The First Section produces the official Vatican publications such as the Acta Apostolicae Sedis and the Annuario Pontificio, and supervises all official communications and the agencies that issue them. It has physical possession of the Pope's lead seal and the Fisherman's Ring.

SECTION FOR RELATIONS WITH STATES (THE SECOND SECTION)

This part of the SOS is usually headed by an archbishop (currently Archbishop Jean-Louis Tauran) who carries the title Secretary for Relations with States. This man--the Vatican's equivalent of a foreign minister--is assisted by a prelate, known as the Under-Secretary for Relations with States. The sole focus of the Second Section is the Holy See's diplomatic ties with other governments. (At the moment, the Vatican has relations with 172 nations.) The Second Section is responsible for all the Holy See's diplomatic agreements, including concordats. It sends representatives to various global meetings and conferences, and it names the Vatican representatives to over 30 international intergovernmental organizations. Furthermore, in consultation with Congregation for Bishops, the Second Section handles the appointment of bishops in countries where the Vatican has treaties or concordats governing the process of episcopal appointment.

CONGREGATIONS

Congregations are the highest form of dicastery in the Holy See in that they have juridical power, whereas other sorts of offices (described below) have only an advisory or pastoral role. The public representative of the Congregation is the prefect, but the secretary and undersecretary are often the ones who do the bulk of the practical work.

CONGREGATION FOR THE DOCTRINE OF THE FAITH

Originally known as the Inquisition and then the Holy Office, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF) received its current appellation in 1965, but is still unofficially known as La Suprema in recognition of its preeminence. This office promotes and safeguards the Church's doctrine. Thus everything that in any way touches on the beliefs of the Catholic faith fall within its competence. The Vatican web site says explains CDF "promotes & sound doctrine and defend those points of Christian tradition that seem in danger because of new and unacceptable doctrines."

Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger has served for years as prefect of the CDF, assisted by a secretary, an undersecretary, a promoter of justice, and a staff of 33 members. Twenty-five members and 28 consultors round out the dicastery; the staff is divided among four divisions: the office for priests, for discipline, for doctrine, and for matrimony.

Any initiative by another Vatican dicastery, if it has implications for Church doctrine, must pass through the CDF. For the secular world, the events that make news within the Catholic Church often occur when the CDF steps into a theological controversy, issues a formal clarification of a disputed point, or disciplines a wayward theologian. Since this office thus commands a high public profile, most people who want the Vatican to do something will start with the CDF. This gives the dicastery the opportunity to decide how various inquiries should be directed to other offices--another source of considerable influence. There is another extraordinarily important aspect to the CDF. The new tribunals the Vatican has created to deal with the priestly sex-abuse scandal are under the aegis of the CDF.

Because of its prominence, the CDF is sometimes able to accomplish things without the help of the Secretariat of State. After Archbishop Emmanuel Milingo was excommunicated for "marrying" a Korean woman and apparently joining the "Moonie" sect, the African prelate repented his actions and sought a meeting with the Pope. Had it been up to the SOS, that meeting might never have happened, because of the Secretariat's penchant for avoiding matters that could prove controversial or even scandalous. Undaunted, the archbishop's friends managed to arrange a direct meeting with the Pontiff. As a result, the Holy Father entrusted the process of Archbishop Milingo's rehabilitation to the CDF, in particular to Archbishop Bertone, who was secretary of the Congregation until his recent appointment as Archbishop of Genoa.

Archbishop Bertone's replacement is Archbishop Angelo Amato, a Salesian cleric who was a principal author of Dominus Iesus, the recent document on the universality and centrality of Christ and his Church. Archbishop Amato is also a Marian expert, and has played a key role in the debate on whether or not the Church should issue a dogmatic declaration that the Virgin Mary is "coredemptrix." (The archbishop has argued against that move, saying that it could distract attention from the centrality of Jesus Christ as the sole means of salvation.)

The CDF secretary's name appears on all the documents that come out of this office, and he plays an important role in meetings. This is not to say that Cardinal Ratzinger is detached from the workings of his Congregation. Rather, the German cardinal tends to be engaged in intellectual issues than in the practical details of running the office. Cardinal Ratzinger has served at the helm of the CDF for more than two decades now, and has passed the normal retirement age. He remains on the job at the explicit wish of Pope John Paul, but he has tried to ease his work load.

The third-ranking official at the CDF is an American, Father Gus DiNoia, OP, who was once the top staff member for the US bishops' doctrinal committee. As the CDF's top English-speaking official, he handles much of the dicastery's English-language work, and is involved in all ad limina visits by bishops from English-speaking nations.

Because the CDFs work deals with matters of the faith, the CDF prefect is also president of both the Pontifical Biblical Commission and the International Theological Commission.

CONGREGATION FOR EVANGELIZATION OR FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE FAITH)

This office--the full title is the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples-- supervises the Church's missionary work, although it takes pains not to interfere in the sphere proper to the Congregation for Eastern Churches. For the large swatches of the world that are designated as missionary territory, this Congregation has responsibility for all ecclesiastical affairs, including the appointment of bishops.

A lot of money passes through this congregation, because the Church in mission countries depends heavily on the universal Church for support. For instance, if a priest from a Third World country must go abroad to study, this Congregation pays for it. Some have called this dicastery the Vatican's Pentagon, since it has the most extensive and complicated organizational chart of any office in the Holy See. Supervising such an office takes an exceptionally organized man, and the Congregation has that in the form of its prefect since 2001, Cardinal Crescenzio Sepe.

CONGREGATION FOR THE CAUSES OF SAINTS

This congregation handles anything that pertains to beatifications, canonizations, or the preservation of relics. Accordingly, the dicastery undertakes the investigations and prepares the ceremonies in which the Pope gives the Church ever-fresh examples of holiness. During the pontificate of John Paul II, this congregation has been particularly busy, working on more than 1,675 beatifications and canonizations. The Holy Father has canonized 446 people at 41 ceremonies and beatified 1,229 servants of God at 124 ceremonies during this pontificate. Since 1998 the Portuguese Cardinal José Saraiva Martins has served as prefect.

CONGREGATION FOR THE ORIENTAL CHURCHES

This Congregation grew out of the Congregation for Propagation of the Faith, being established as an independent dicastery under Pope Benedict XV in 1917. It has responsibility for the Eastern Churches in union with Rome. It also has full jurisdiction for the Church in those parts of the world where a majority of the Christians are members of these Eastern Catholic churches. Finally, if circumstances require it, this office manages the Eastern churches in territories where Latin-rite Christians predominate, providing for the appointment of Eastern-rite prelates.

The Commission's prefect is Cardinal Ignace Moussa I Daoud, who was the Patriarch of the Syrian Catholic Church until his appointment to the Vatican post in November 2000. (Pope John Paul declared that he should retain the dignity of the title of Patriarch: a rank higher than that of cardinal.)

CONGREGATION FOR BISHOPS

This dicastery is primarily responsible for the appointment of bishops. It conducts the background investigations and makes the final recommendations to the Holy Father. The Congregation for Bishops also deals with the creation of new dioceses, provinces, and regions, and with the formation of new military ordinariates.

Its prefect is Cardinal Giovanni Battista Re, who has worked for the Holy See since 1963, mostly in various nunciatures around the world. He was sostituto in the Secretariat of State for 13 years before being named prefect of the Congregation for Bishops in 2000.

CONGREGATION FOR DIVINE WORSHIP AND THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SACRAMENTS

This Congregation is responsible for anything having to do with the liturgy and the sacraments. For instance, when the US Conference of Catholic Bishops wanted to change translations in the Lectionary and Sacramentary, it had to gain approval from this office. It handles some questions concerning marriage (although it is does not handle annulments), and it deals with the validity of Holy Orders. Most recently, the Congregation for Divine Worship was responsible for the Vatican's document clarifying the proper use of vernacular languages in the liturgy, Liturgiam Authenticam. The prefect of this dicastery is the Nigerian Cardinal Francis Arinze, who recently replaced the Chilean Cardinal Jorge Cardinal Arturo Medina. Cardinal Arinze is often mentioned as the first probable candidate for the papacy from Africa in well over 1,000 years.

CONGREGATION FOR INSTITUTES OF CONSECRATED LIFE AND FOR SOCIETIES OF APOSTOLIC LIFE

This congregation takes care of anything having to do with religious orders and the members thereof. It also handles those who live under religious rules but are not official members of a society, such as Third Orders and apostolic societies. The prefect is Cardinal Eduardo Martinez Somalo, a Spaniard and former sostituto who has served in this post since 1992.

CONGREGATION FOR THE CLERGY

This congregation traces its origins back to the pontificate of Pope Pius IV; it was established to ensure a correct interpretation of the norms issued by the Council of Trent. Over the years, it developed into an office that simply oversaw anything having to do with the Church's clergy, from priestly formation to laicization. When priests are disciplined, it is through this office. However, its main function is to offer pastoral support for priests. In particular, it promotes good preaching, apostolic works, fosters Catechetical Congresses, and handles norms for the catechesis of the young and converts. The Congregation for Clergy has three divisions: the Office for the Clergy, the Catechetical Office, and the Third Office.

The Office for the Clergy works on initiatives that promote the sanctity and development of the clergy. It oversees cathedral chapters, pastoral councils, presbyteral councils, parishes, parish priests, and all clerics in all aspects of their ministry (Mass offerings, oratories, pious unions, churches, shrines, ecclesial archives, and libraries, etc.).

The Catechetical Office issues and approves norms for catechetical teaching and is responsible for ensuring that those are implemented properly. It helps religious education offices in their efforts and assists with international events focusing on catechesis.

The Third Office preserves and administers the Churchs temporal possessions. It also helps the clergy when presented with such issues as disability, retirement, and medical care.

The Congregation also oversees several associated institutes.

The first is the Studio Pio, which helps young priests improve their skills in ecclesial affairs, especially in the application of Canon Law in administrative matters. The second is the International Council for Catechesis, established by Pope Paul VI in 1973. This Council's task is to promote "an exchange of experience, of studying more important catechetical issues." The third is the Sacrum Ministerium, which provides for the formation of those who are themselves responsible for the formation of priests.

Cardinal Dario Castrillon Hoyos serves the Congregation as prefect. Originally from Colombia, he was appointed to this post in 1998.

CONGREGATION FOR CATHOLIC EDUCATION

This Congregation works for the formation of those who are called to holy orders and thus is responsible for everything pertaining to the training of clerics. It also handles all matters regarding the formal education of the Catholic laity. In addition, it is responsible for promoting clerical and religious vocations. Finally, it oversees all diocesan schools, Catholic colleges and universities, and ecclesiastical faculties. Thus it is the Congregation responsible for implementing Ex Corde Ecclesiae.

The prefect of this Congregation is Cardinal Zenon Grocholewski, a Pole who spent most of his Vatican career working on the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura, the Churchs highest court. John Paul II made him prefect of the congregation in 1999.